Concentration in GIS for Development and Environment
The concentration in Geographic Information Science for Development and Environment is intended for students interested in applications of geospatial technologies to address the challenge of sustainable development. The issues are many, ranging from natural resource development while protecting biodiversity, smart development and planning of infrastructure to social issues such as disaster management, humanitarian assistance, water and sanitation, poverty and hunger alleviation, climate change impacts, conflicts, and migration.
The GISDE concentration builds upon the broad strengths of the Department of International Development, Community and Environment (IDCE), the Graduate School of Geography and Clark Labs. Accordingly, this concentration allows considerable flexibility in tailoring an individual program, crafted with the assistance of a faculty advisor.
Curriculum
Candidates for the MS in Geographic Information Science specializing in GIS for Development and Environment are required to complete 12 units, including four units of required courses and associated prerequisites.
Required Courses:
GEOG 397 Advanced Raster GIS
IDCE 388 Advanced Vector GIS
IDCE 391 M.S. GIS Professional Seminar (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30306 GIS for International Development (0.5 unit)
Students must also take at least one of the following courses:
IDCE 30229 Program Monitoring and Evaluation Fundamentals
IDCE 30291 Qualitative Research Methods
IDCE 361 Project Management for Social Change
Students in the research track are also required to take:
GEOG 399 Directed Study or
IDCE 30213 Master’s Final Research Paper with their research advisor (2 units- one in each semester of Year 2)
Students in the research track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of Research Proposal signed by research advisor by the last day of Spring semester of Year 1. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed research paper by the first week of March in Spring semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about research at a professional conference during Fall or Spring semester of Year 2. Send MSGIS Program Coordinator conference name, dates, location, and presentation abstract
Students in the internship track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Proposal approved by the academic advisor before the beginning of internship (by the end of Spring semester of year 1). Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Report approved by the academic advisor by the end of Fall Semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed MSGIS Internship Supervisor Evaluation form in Fall Semester of Year 2. Internship supervisor should send the form digitally to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about internship during GIS Week in Fall semester of Year 2
Prerequisites:
The following is a list of prerequisites for required courses. Students who can demonstrate that they have taken comparable courses at other institutions can be exempted from these prerequisites upon the approval of the program Coordinator. However, this does not reduce the requirement for a total of 12 units for completion of the degree.
IDCE 310 Intro to Geographic Information Science
GEOG 311 Introduction to Quantitative Methods
GEOG 383 Introduction to Remote Sensing
Highly Recommended Electives:
GEOG 346 Geospatial Analysis with R
IDCE 302 Python Programming (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30274 Computer Programming for GIS (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30262 Web Mapping and Open Source GIS
IDCE 30154 Mega Development: Exploring The Nexus Between Natural Resource Extraction, Infrastructure Development and Environment
GEOG 382 Advanced Remote Sensing
Other Electives:
IDCE 30393 Social Applications of GIS (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30229 Program Monitoring and Evaluation Fundamentals
IDCE 361 Project Management for Social Change
IDCE 377 Approaches to Global Health
IDCE 30330 Approaches to Community Health
IDCE 30109 Introduction to Epidemiology
IDCE 30360 Spatial Analysis for Health
IDCE 332 Sustainable Development Assessment and Planning
IDCE 30231 Humanitarian Assistances in Complex Emergencies/Disasters
GEOG 389 Conservation GIS
GEOG 336 Wildlife Conservation GIS Research Seminar
332 GEOG 332 - Landscape Ecology or GEOG 386 - Special Topics : Community Forestry
GEOG 386 Special Topics Habitat Modeling (0.5 unit)
GEOG 323 Forest Ecology and Management Seminar
GEOG 333 Terrestrial Ecosystems and Global Change
GEOG 347 Intermediate Quantitative Methods in Geography
GEOG 352 GIS & Land Change Science
GEOG 360 GIS & Land Change Models
GEOG 363 The Climate System and Global Environmental Change
GEOG 378 Emerging Issues in Climate Change Science
GEOG 379 GIS & Map Comparison
GEOG 387 New Methods in Earth Observation
GEOG 391 Innovations in Earth Observations
GEOG 392 Remote Sensing of Global Environmental Change
Students may also take courses offered by the Graduate School of Geography or the other four graduate programs in IDCE (International Development, Community Development and Planning, Community and Global Health, and Environmental Science and Policy) or in other departments, as approved by their academic advisor. Please view Clark’s official Academic Catalog www.clarku.edu/academiccatalog for a complete listing of course offerings.
Students on the internship track can optionally register for a 0.5 or 1.0 unit internship (IDCE398 or GEOG398) with their academic advisor either during the summer when they take the internship, or in the fall semester immediately following. Note that international students taking their internship as CPT must register for the internship course (0.5 or 1.0 unit).
Concentration in Conservation Applications
Conservation GIS is concerned with the application of Geographic Information Systems and related geospatial technologies to the needs of Conservation Biology, Landscape Ecology, Wildlife Management and Conservation Planning. The MSGIS in Conservation Applications builds upon the history of close partnerships between Clark University and Clark Labs with organizations such as Conservation International, The Nature Conservancy, the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Through these relationships, for example, Clark Labs has developed a distinctive set of geospatial software tools for Conservation such as the Land Change Modeler, the Habitat and Biodiversity Modeler, the Climate Change Adaptation Modeler, the Ecosystem Services Modeler and the Earth Trends Modeler. Clark is also in the process of becoming the home of the New England chapter of the Society for Conservation GIS.
The objectives of the Master of Science in Conservation Applications are to gain spatial analysis skills required in ecological and conservation applications including: vector and raster spatial data analysis, analysis of image time series, remote sensing applied to environmental monitoring, GIS programming skills, spatial conservation planning, spatial modeling of species distributions, and effective map communication.
Curriculum
Candidates for the MS in Geographic Information Science specializing in Conservation Applications are required to complete 12 graduate course units, normally including 5 required units.
Required Courses:
GEOG 397 Advanced Raster GIS
IDCE 388 Advanced Vector GIS
IDCE 391 M.S. GIS Professional Seminar (0.5 unit)
GEOG 332 Landscape Ecology or GEOG 386 - Special Topics : Community Forestry
GEOG 386 Special Topics Habitat Modeling (0.5 unit)
GEOG 389 Conservation GIS
Students in the research track are also required to take:
GEOG 399 Directed Study or IDCE 30213 Master’s Final Research Paper with their research advisor (2 unit - one in each Semester of Year 2)
Students in the research track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of Research Proposal signed by research advisor by the last day of Spring semester of Year 1. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed research paper by the first week of March in Spring semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about research at a professional conference during Fall or Spring semester of Year 2. Send MSGIS Program Coordinator conference name, dates, location, and presentation abstract
Students in the internship track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Proposal approved by the academic advisor before the beginning of internship (by the end of Spring semester of year 1). Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Report approved by the academic advisor by the end of Fall Semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed MSGIS Internship Supervisor Evaluation form in Fall Semester of Year 2. Internship supervisor should send the form digitally to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about internship during GIS Week in Fall semester of Year 2
Prerequisites:
The following is a list of prerequisites for required courses. Students who can demonstrate that they have taken comparable courses at other institutions can be exempted from these prerequisites upon the approval of the program Coordinator. However, this does not reduce the requirement for a total of 12 units for completion of the degree.
IDCE 310 Intro to Geographic Information Science
GEOG 311 Introduction to Quantitative Methods
GEOG 383 Introduction to Remote Sensing
Highly Recommended Electives:
GEOG 346 Geospatial Analysis with R
IDCE 302 Python Programming (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30274 Computer Programming for GIS (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30262 Web Mapping and Open Source GIS
GEOG 336 Wildlife Conservation GIS Research Seminar
Other Electives:
GEOG 323 Forest Ecology and Management Seminar
GEOG 333 Terrestrial Ecosystems and Global Change
GEOG 360 GIS & Land Change Models
GEOG 363 The Climate System and Global Environmental Change
GEOG 378 Emerging Issues in Climate Change Science
GEOG 379 GIS & Map Comparison
IDCE 30154 Mega Development: Exploring The Nexus Between Natural Resource Extraction, Infrastructure Development and Environment
GEOG 382 Advanced Remote Sensing
GEOG 387 New Methods in Earth Observation
GEOG 391 Innovations in Earth Observations
GEOG 392 Remote Sensing of Global Environmental Change
BIOL 306 Advanced Biostatistics Not offered regularly
BIOL 316 Ecology
BIOL 358 Small Scale Land Conservation in Massachusetts
Students may also take courses offered by the Graduate School of Geography or the other four graduate programs in IDCE (International Development, Community Development and Planning, Community and Global Health, and Environmental Science and Policy) or in other departments, as approved by their academic advisor. Please view Clark’s official Academic Catalog www.clarku.edu/academiccatalog for a complete listing of course offerings.
Students on the internship track can optionally register for a 0.5 or 1.0 unit internship (IDCE398 or GEOG398) with their academic advisor either during the summer when they take the internship, or in the fall semester immediately following. Note that international students taking their internship as CPT must register for the internship course (0.5 or 1.0 unit).
Concentration in Environmental Remote Sensing
Remote Sensing is the scientific discipline concerned with the acquisition of environmental data at a distance (typically from imaging sensors on satellites and aircraft) and their subsequent analysis to yield information, typically in map form. MSGIS concentration in Environmental Remote Sensing focuses on the analysis of image data for environmental applications, particularly related to earth system science, natural resource inventory and ecological/conservation applications. Faculty, students and staff are involved not only in the application of remote sensing to crucial environmental concerns, but also, in some cases, in the development of new image processing procedures and software implementations.
MSGIS concentration in Environmental Remote Sensing places a strong emphasis on acquiring the quantitative analysis and problem solving skills necessary to function as a professional analyst. The products of remote sensing image analysis are almost universally in map form. Thus the program also puts emphasis on acquiring the GIS skills necessary for the development of end products, and most of the courses have an applied project component as an integral element.
Clark University continues to have strong partnerships with many organizations that have remote sensing image analysis needs, including the Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the GIMMS laboratory at NASA, the Wildlife Conservation Society, Conservation International, Digital Globe and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.
Curriculum
Candidates for the MS in Geographic Information Science specializing Remote Sensing of the Environment are required to complete 12 graduate course units, including 3.5 units of required courses and associated prerequisites.
Required Courses:
IDCE 388 Advanced Vector GIS
GEOG 397 Advanced Raster GIS
IDCE 391 M.S. GIS Professional Seminar (0.5 unit)
GEOG 382 Advanced Remote Sensing
Students in the research track are also required to take:
GEOG 399 Directed Study or IDCE 30213 Master’s Final Research Paper with their advisor (2 unit - one in each semester of Year 2)
Students in the research track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of Research Proposal signed by research advisor by the last day of Spring semester of Year 1. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed research paper by the first week of March in Spring semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about research at a professional conference during Fall or Spring semester of Year 2. Send MSGIS Program Coordinator conference name, dates, location, and presentation abstract
Students in the internship track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Proposal approved by the academic advisor before the beginning of internship (by the end of Spring semester of year 1). Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Report approved by the academic advisor by the end of Fall Semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed MSGIS Internship Supervisor Evaluation form in Fall Semester of Year 2. Internship supervisor should send the form digitally to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about internship during GIS Week in Fall semester of Year 2
Prerequisites:
The following is a list of prerequisites for required courses. Students who can demonstrate that they have taken comparable courses at other institutions can be exempted from these prerequisites upon the approval of the program Coordinator. However, this does not reduce the requirement for a total of 12 units for completion of the degree.
1. IDCE 310 Intro to Geographic Information Science
2. GEOG 311 Introduction to Quantitative Methods
3. GEOG 383 Introduction to Remote Sensing
Highly Recommended Electives:
IDCE 302 Python Programming (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30274 Computer Programming for GIS (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30262 Web Mapping and Open Source GIS
GEOG 346 Geospatial Analysis with R
GEOG 387 - New Methods in Earth Observation
391 GEOG 391 - Innovations in Earth Observations
Other Electives:
Students may select from any relevant graduate-credit courses in Geography or IDCE to fill out their requirement of 12 units for the degree. However, the following is a list of elective courses with a strong focus on Remote Sensing or GIS.
GEOG 330 Introduction to Species Distribution Modeling
GEOG 332 Landscape Ecology or 386 Special Topics: Community Forestry
GEOG 336 Wildlife Conservation GIS Research Seminar
GEOG 352 GIS & Land Change Science
GEOG 360 GIS & Land Change Models
GEOG 379 GIS & Map Comparison
Students may also take courses offered by the Graduate School of Geography or the other four graduate programs in IDCE (International Development, Community Development and Planning, Global and Community Health, and Environmental Science and Policy) or in other departments, as approved by their academic advisor. Please view Clark’s official Academic Catalog www.clarku.edu/academiccatalog for a complete listing of course offerings.
Students on the internship track can optionally register for a 0.5 or 1.0 unit internship (IDCE 398 or GEOG 398) with their academic advisor either during the summer when they take the internship, or in the fall semester immediately following. Note that international students taking their internship as CPT must register for the internship course (0.5 or 1.0 unit).
Concentration in Community and Global Health Applications
The concentration in GIS for Community and Global Health Applications is intended for students interested in applications of geospatial technologies in areas of community and global health. The program is aimed at individuals who plan to work as GIS Analysts/Specialists in international health organizations (such as WHO, International Red Cross), federal, state and local government agencies (CDC, FEMA, state and municipal health departments), NGOs (Partners in Health, Planned Parenthood, etc.) or research organizations and Universities (Schools of Public Health, Health GIS Research Labs).
Putting information into a spatial context allows exploring the spatial relationships among health and behavior indicators, health outcomes, environmental risk factors, and demographic and cultural characteristics at a particular location. GIS and remote sensing allow visualizing and analyzing spatial patterns of disease distribution, accounting for spatial dependencies in the data, and investigating how health outcomes and processes that drive them differ from place to place. GIS maps may indicate connections and trends that would be otherwise not readily apparent, if the data were not integrated together via spatial overlays. Graduates with this concentration will have a solid understanding of health issues facing communities (both domestic and global), and of the policy environments affecting global and community health. They will also develop competency in a wide range of GIS analytical methods, with particular emphasis on techniques applicable to community and global health issues.
Faculty this concentration have developed strong partnerships with local and global organizations, including the City Worcester (Department of Public Health), Family Health Center of Worcester, Inc., Department of Family Medicine and Community Health at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, Departments of Obstetrics/Gynecology and Pediatrics, University of Massachusetts Medical School/UMass Memorial Health Care, Partners in Health, and others. Several MS students have done summer internships in some of these organizations or worked as research assistants with faculty on health-related GIS projects, and co-published academic papers in peer-reviewed journals.
Curriculum
Candidates for the MS in Geographic Information Science with concentration in Community and Global Health are required to complete 12 graduate course units, normall including required units.
Required Courses:
IDCE 388 Advanced Vector GIS
GEOG 397 Advanced Raster GIS
IDCE 391 M.S. GIS Professional Seminar (0.5 unit)
GEOG 386 - Special Topics : Landscape Ecology or GEOG 386 Special Topics: Community Forestry
GEOG 386 - Special Topics : Habitat Modeling (0.5 unit)
GEOG 389 - Conservation GIS
Students must also take at least one of the following courses:
IDCE 377 Approaches to Global Health
IDCE 30330 Approaches to Community Health
IDCE 30264 Environmental and Social Epidemiology
Students in the research track are also required to take:
GEOG 399 Directed Study or IDCE 30213 Master’s Final Research Paper with their research advisor (2 unit - one in each Semester of Year 2).
Students in the research track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of Research Proposal signed by research advisor by the last day of Spring semester of Year 1. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed research paper by the first week of March in Spring semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about research at a professional conference during Fall or Spring semester of Year 2. Send MSGIS Program Coordinator conference name, dates, location, and presentation abstract
Students in the internship track also have the following non-course requirements that must be fulfilled before graduation clearance will be given:
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Proposal approved by the academic advisor before the beginning of internship (by the end of Spring semester of year 1). Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of MSGIS Internship Report approved by the academic advisor by the end of Fall Semester of Year 2. Send a digital copy to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Submission of a completed and signed MSGIS Internship Supervisor Evaluation form in Fall Semester of Year 2. Internship supervisor should send the form digitally to MSGIS Program Coordinator
- Presentation about internship during GIS Week in Fall semester of Year 2
Prerequisites:
The following is a list of prerequisites for required courses. Students who can demonstrate that they have taken comparable courses at other institutions can be exempted from these prerequisites upon the approval of the program Coordinator. However, this does not reduce the requirement for a total of 12 units for completion of the degree.
IDCE 310 Intro to Geographic Information Science
GEOG 311 Introduction to Quantitative Methods
GEOG 383 Introduction to Remote Sensing
Highly Recommended Electives:
GEOG 346 Geospatial Analysis with R
IDCE 302 Python Programming (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30274 Computer Programming for GIS (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30262 Web Mapping and Open Source GIS
IDCE 30393 Social Applications of GIS (0.5 unit)
Other Electives:
IDCE 30229 Program Monitoring and Evaluation Fundamentals
IDCE 361 Project Management for Social Change
IDCE 30154 Mega Development: Exploring The Nexus Between Natural Resource Extraction, Infrastructure Development and Environment
IDCE 305 Innovations in Humanitarian and International Development Data
IDCE 377 Approaches to Global Health
IDCE 30330 Approaches to Community Health
IDCE 308 Health (in)Equity: Social Determinants and Policy Solutions
GEOG 382 Advanced Remote Sensing
GEOG 360 GIS & Land Change Models
GEOG 379 GIS & Map Comparison
GEOG 330 Introduction to Species Distribution Modeling
GEOG 332 Landscape Ecology or GEOG 386 Special Topics: Community Forestry
GEOG 336 Wildlife Conservation GIS Research Seminar
Students may also take courses offered by the Graduate School of Geography or the other four graduate programs in IDCE (International Development, Community Development and Planning, Community and Global Health, and Environmental Science and Policy) or in other departments, as approved by their academic advisor. Please view Clark’s official Academic Catalog www.elarku.edu/academiccatalog for a complete listing of course offerings.
Students on the internship track can optionally register for a 0.5 or 1.0 unit internship (IDCE398 or GEOG398) with their academic advisor either during the summer when they take the internship, or in the fall semester immediately following. Note that international students taking their internship as CPT must register for the internship course (0.5 or 1.0 unit).
Concentration in Geography-ADP (Accelerated Degree Program only)
Clark’s accelerated degree program offers a BA/MS option in GIS, which is simply the MSGIS degree Geography-APD concentration. This program in Geographic Information Science is intended exclusively for ADP students, focusing on applications of geospatial technologies to address a range of circumstances, as articulated through the final year of the Bachelor’s degree and during the Master’s program year.
The MS-GIS Geography-ADP concentration builds upon the broad strengths of the Graduate School of Geography, Clark Labs, and the Department of international Development, Community and Environment (IDCE). Accordingly, it allows considerable flexibility in. tailoring an individual program, crafted with the assistance of a faculty advisor.
Curriculum
Candidates for the MS in Geographic Information Science are required to complete 12 graduate level units, as well as associated prerequisites.
Prerequisites I (not counted towards the 12 required units)
GEOG 297 Honors (or other subject) (Students must complete an honor’s thesis with two semesters of honor’s units)
GEOG 190 Introduction to Geographic Information Science
GEOG 383 Introduction to Remote Sensing
Prerequisites II (counted toward the Master’s program 12-unit total):
GEOG 397 Advanced Raster GIS
IDCE 388 Advanced Vector GIS
Two 300-level Geography GIS-related courses (two units total; from below list of electives)
Post-BA Graduation Coursework:
Summer after BA Graduation:
GEOG 398 Internship ((Summer Internship)
Fifth Year Coursework
Students in the research track are required to take:
GEOG 399 Directed Study -MS Thesis Directed Research (2 units - one each semester)
At least four additional courses from the list of electives, below (minimum 2 courses/units per semester)
Summer of Fifth Year:
GEOG 399 Directed Study - Thesis Directed Research (1 unit)
Students in the internship track are required to take:
GEOG 398 Internship (2 units - one each Semester)
At least five additional courses from the list of electives, below (minimum 2 courses/units per semester)
Internship Reports
At the end of each semester of the internship track, students must complete an Internship Report evaluating their experience with the organization they interned for during that semester. The students must also send their internship supervisor a Supervisor Evaluation Form in order for the supervisor to evaluate the student and their performance/contribution throughout the prior semester.
Highly Recommended Electives:
GEOG 346 Geospatial Analysis with R
IDCE 302 Python Programming (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30274 Computer Programming for GIS (0.5 unit)
IDCE 30262 Web Mapping and Open Source GIS
IDCE 30306 GIS for International Development (0.5 unit)
GEOG 382 Advanced Remote Sensing
IDCE 391 M.S. GIS Professional Seminar (0.5 unit)
Other Electives:
IDCE 30393 Social Applications of GIS
IDCE 30229 Program Monitoring and Evaluation Fundamentals
IDCE 361 Project Management for Social Change
IDCE 377 Approaches to Global Health
IDCE 30330 Approaches to Community Health Approaches to Community Health
IDCE 30264 Environmental and Social Epidemiology
IDCE 30360 Spatial Analysis for Health
IDCE 332 Sustainable Development Assessment and Planning
IDCE 30231 Humanitarian Assistances in Complex Emergencies/Disasters
IDCE 30103 Networks and Analytics of Development
GEOG 389 Conservation GIS
GEOG 336 Wildlife Conservation GIS Research Seminar
GEOG 332 Landscape Ecology or GEOG 386 Special Topics: Community Forestry
GEOG 386 Special Topics Habitat Modeling (0.5 unit)
GEOG 323 Forest Ecology and Management Seminar
GEOG 333 Terrestrial Ecosystems and Global Change
GEOG 347 Intermediate Quantitative Methods in Geography
GEOG 363 The Climate System and Global Environmental Change
GEOG 352 GIS & Land Change Science
GEOG 378 Emerging Issues in Climate Change Science
GEOG 379 GIS & Map Comparison
GEOG 387 New Methods in Earth Observation
GEOG 391 Innovations in Earth Observations
GEOG 392 Remote Sensing of Global Environmental Change
Students may also take courses offered by the Graduate School of Geography or the other four graduate programs in IDCE (International Development, Community Development and Planning, Community and Global Health, and Environmental Science and Policy) or in other departments, as approved by their academic advisor. Please view Clark’s official Academic Catalog www.clarku.edulacademiccatalog for a complete listing of course offerings.
